Planetary Science

Planetary Science sends spacecraft to explore destinations in our solar system, from the Moon to beyond Pluto.

Scope Active Mission WindowActivePapers published from the first full month after science operations begin through two years after the mission ends. Citations are counted through the third calendar year after each paper appears. Methods LifetimeLifetimeEvery tracked publication to date, with every citation to date. Methods

Publications and citations by year

Publications per yearCumulative citations

Citations per $100M, by missionEach square is a mission at its cost and its citations per $100M, both on log scales. The running average combines mission rates across a broad range of nearby costs, giving closer missions more weight. Missions with no citations remain included and sit on the bottom row. Shading shows a 95% interval for the average at each cost. Methods

Each square is a mission at its cost and its citations per $100M, both on log scales. The running average combines mission rates across a broad range of nearby costs, giving closer missions more weight. Missions with no citations remain included and sit on the bottom row. Shading shows a 95% interval for the average at each cost.

Missions

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Missions — Lifetime, earliest launch first
ImageLife-cycle cost: NASA’s reported cost to build, launch, and operate a mission through its prime mission, plus documented partner contributions, in 2025 dollars. Extended missions are not included. MethodsTracked publications: peer-reviewed papers we found that name the mission or its instruments in their titles, abstracts, or keywords. Papers that used the data without naming it are missed. MethodsCitations: every citation these publications have drawn to date. Older missions have had longer to collect them. Methods
Magellan $1.7B, 19891989Orbiter$1.7B38114,205
Galileo $4.6B, 19891989Orbiter$4.6B1,55464,875
Mars Observer Failure $2.5B, 19921992Orbiter$2.5B459
NEAR Shoemaker $486M, 19961996Orbiter$486M1587,315
Mars Global Surveyor $550M, 19961996Orbiter$550M1,50482,620
Mars Pathfinder $613M, 19961996Lander$613M1548,792
Cassini $7.6B, 19971997Orbiter$7.6B3,404122,578
Lunar Prospector $131M, 19981998Orbiter$131M28714,658
DS-1 $315M, 19981998Flyby$315M571,720
Mars Climate Orbiter Failure $306M, 19981998Orbiter$306M00
DS-2 Failure $58M, 19991999Impactor$58M00
Mars Polar Lander Failure $306M, 19991999Lander$306M00
Stardust $464M, 19991999Sample Return$464M33915,340
Mars Odyssey $449M, 20012001Orbiter$449M61128,436
Genesis $411M, 20012001Sample Return$411M703,985
CONTOUR Failure $297M, 20022002Flyby$297M00
Spirit $756M, 20032003Rover$756M45322,450
Opportunity $756M, 20032003Rover$756M45123,741
MESSENGER $778M, 20042004Orbiter$778M76727,240
Deep Impact (EPOXI) $624M, 20052005Impactor$624M31412,211
MRO $1.4B, 20052005Orbiter$1.4B1,28546,266
New Horizons $1.2B, 20062006Flyby$1.2B43610,453
Phoenix $869M, 20072007Lander$869M23610,450
Dawn $883M, 20072007Orbiter$883M42213,711
LCROSS $139M, 20092009Impactor$139M572,984
LRO $806M, 20092009Orbiter$806M1,01629,816
NEOWISE $484M, 20092009Survey Observatory$484M1094,509
Juno $1.7B, 20112011Orbiter$1.7B83519,302
GRAIL $725M, 20112011Orbiter$725M1927,703
Curiosity $4.0B, 20112011Rover$4.0B1,11639,970
LADEE $378M, 20132013Orbiter$378M751,775
MAVEN $971M, 20132013Orbiter$971M96123,476
InSight $1.4B, 20182018Lander$1.4B3708,543
MarCO $24M, 20182018Flyby$24M120
Q-PACE Failure $0.6M, 20212021Orbiter$0.6M00
Lunar IceCube Failure $12M, 20222022Orbiter$12M00
NEA Scout Failure $24M, 20222022Orbiter$24M00

How we found the papers, counted citations, and set costs: Methods.

Institutional contributionsThe institutions SciX lists for each paper’s authors, as printed on the paper, located through the Research Organization Registry. A square counts a paper once, however many of its authors worked there. Methods

Every tracked publication to date, each counted once however many Planetary Science missions it names.

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