Astrophysics

NASA's Astrophysics Division is responsible for the study of the universe, primarily using space telescopes.

Scope Active Mission WindowActivePapers published from the first full month after science operations begin through two years after the mission ends. Citations are counted through the third calendar year after each paper appears. Methods LifetimeLifetimeEvery tracked publication to date, with every citation to date. Methods

Publications and citations by year

Publications per yearCumulative citations

Citations per $100M, by missionEach square is a mission at its cost and its citations per $100M, both on log scales. The running average combines mission rates across a broad range of nearby costs, giving closer missions more weight. Missions with no citations remain included and sit on the bottom row. Shading shows a 95% interval for the average at each cost. Methods

Each square is a mission at its cost and its citations per $100M, both on log scales. The running average combines mission rates across a broad range of nearby costs, giving closer missions more weight. Missions with no citations remain included and sit on the bottom row. Shading shows a 95% interval for the average at each cost.

Missions

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Missions — Lifetime, earliest launch first
ImageLife-cycle cost: NASA’s reported cost to build, launch, and operate a mission through its prime mission, plus documented partner contributions, in 2025 dollars. Extended missions are not included. MethodsTracked publications: peer-reviewed papers we found that name the mission or its instruments in their titles, abstracts, or keywords. Papers that used the data without naming it are missed. MethodsCitations: every citation these publications have drawn to date. Older missions have had longer to collect them. Methods
IRAS $816M, 19831983Pointed Observatory$816M37120,981
COBE $589M, 19891989Survey Observatory$589M1,417120,966
Hubble $14B, 19901990Pointed Observatory$14B18,9271,185,287
Compton $2.0B, 19911991Survey Observatory$2.0B2,769150,525
EUVE $720M, 19921992Survey Observatory$720M47318,569
RXTE $490M, 19951995Survey Observatory$490M2,578122,358
HETE 1 Failure $159M, 19961996Survey Observatory$159M00
SWAS $136M, 19981998Survey Observatory$136M762,992
WIRE Partial success $149M, 19991999Survey Observatory$149M24989
FUSE $298M, 19991999Pointed Observatory$298M79938,180
Chandra $7.5B, 19991999Pointed Observatory$7.5B9,224465,262
HETE 2 $184M, 20002000Survey Observatory$184M12711,196
WMAP $303M, 20012001Survey Observatory$303M3,298344,234
CHIPS $27M, 20032003Survey Observatory$27M488
GALEX $282M, 20032003Survey Observatory$282M1,58294,172
Spitzer $1.6B, 20032003Pointed Observatory$1.6B6,423426,956
GP-B $1.4B, 20042004Pointed Observatory$1.4B1243,813
Swift $456M, 20042004Pointed Observatory$456M5,527233,870
Fermi $1.3B, 20082008Survey Observatory$1.3B6,653296,196
Kepler $1.1B, 20092009Survey Observatory$1.1B4,596239,755
WISE $484M, 20092009Survey Observatory$484M2,607107,904
NuSTAR $248M, 20122012Pointed Observatory$248M1,93655,277
ASTERIA $6.5M, 20172017Pointed Observatory$6.5M346
TESS $387M, 20182018Survey Observatory$387M3,61867,350
HaloSat $5.2M, 20182018Survey Observatory$5.2M15217

How we found the papers, counted citations, and set costs: Methods.

Institutional contributionsThe institutions SciX lists for each paper’s authors, as printed on the paper, located through the Research Organization Registry. A square counts a paper once, however many of its authors worked there. Methods

Every tracked publication to date, each counted once however many Astrophysics missions it names.

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