Planetary Science

Galileo

Orbiter · Directed · Agency-led · Launched on October 18, 1989 · Completed · LCC: $1.4B/$4.6B (2025 $)Life-cycle cost: NASA’s reported cost to build, launch, and operate a mission through its prime mission, plus documented partner contributions, in 2025 dollars. Extended missions are not included. Methods

Scope Active Mission WindowActivePapers published from the first full month after science operations begin through two years after the mission ends. Citations are counted through the third calendar year after each paper appears. For Galileo, papers published January 1, 1996 to October 1, 2005. Methods LifetimeLifetimeEvery tracked publication to date, with every citation to date. For Galileo, papers published from 1991 to November 3, 2026. Methods
Tracked publicationsTracked publications: peer-reviewed papers we found that name the mission or its instruments in their titles, abstracts, or keywords. Papers that used the data without naming it are missed. Methods1,554
CitationsCitations: every citation these publications have drawn to date. Older missions have had longer to collect them. Methods64,875
Citation indices
h-indexh-index: the largest h such that h papers have at least h citations each. It only grows with time, so older missions score higher. Methods117
g-indexg-index: the largest g for which the g most-cited papers together hold at least g² citations. Like the h-index, but it lets the most-cited papers count for more. Methods170
m-indexm-index: a mission’s h-index divided by the years since its first peer-reviewed paper. It falls every 1 January even when nothing else changes; the figure shown is as of November 3, 2026. It also discounts the long operating life that larger missions paid for. Methods3.3
toritori (total research impact, from SciX): for every paper citing one of the mission’s papers, 1 divided by the citing paper’s reference count times the cited paper’s author count, summed, with self-citations removed. It favors citations from papers with short reference lists and from outside the mission’s own authors. Computed over the tracked citation graph, which can be slightly incomplete. Always over every tracked publication to date, whichever scope is chosen. Methods463
riqriq (research impact quotient): 1,000 times the square root of tori, divided by the years since the mission’s first paper. A rate, not a total, so it does not keep growing with age the way the h-index and tori do. Like tori, always over every tracked publication to date. Methods581

Publications and citations by year (lifetime)

Publications per yearCumulative citations

Institutional contributions (lifetime)The institutions SciX lists for each paper’s authors, as printed on the paper, located through the Research Organization Registry. A square counts a paper once, however many of its authors worked there. Methods

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Tracked publications over the lifetime (1,554)

All publications CSV · JSON

  1. Galileo Magnetometer Measurements: A Stronger Case for a Subsurface Ocean at Europa

    Kivelson, Margaret G., 2000, Sci

    547 lifetime citations

  2. Induced magnetic fields as evidence for subsurface oceans in Europa and Callisto

    Khurana, K. K., 1998, Natur

    522 lifetime citations

  3. Evidence for a subsurface ocean on Europa

    Carr, M. H., 1998, Natur

    474 lifetime citations

  4. Indication, from Pioneer 10/11, Galileo, and Ulysses Data, of an Apparent Anomalous, Weak, Long-Range Acceleration

    Anderson, John D., 1998, PhRvL

    470 lifetime citations

  5. The Permanent and Inductive Magnetic Moments of Ganymede

    Kivelson, M. G., 2002, Icar

    371 lifetime citations

  6. Europa's Crust and Ocean: Origin, Composition, and the Prospects for Life

    Kargel, Jeffrey S., 2000, Icar

    369 lifetime citations

  7. Energetic Ion and Electron Irradiation of the Icy Galilean Satellites

    Cooper, John F., 2001, Icar

    369 lifetime citations

  8. Europa's Differentiated Internal Structure: Inferences from Four Galileo Encounters

    Anderson, J. D., 1998, Sci

    367 lifetime citations

  9. Does Europa have a subsurface ocean? Evaluation of the geological evidence

    Pappalardo, R. T., 1999, JGR

    366 lifetime citations

  10. Geological evidence for solid-state convection in Europa's ice shell

    Pappalardo, R. T., 1998, Natur

    354 lifetime citations

  11. Salts on Europa's Surface Detected by Galileo's Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer

    McCord, T. B., 1998, Sci

    353 lifetime citations

  12. Discovery of Ganymede's magnetic field by the Galileo spacecraft

    Kivelson, M. G., 1996, Natur

    346 lifetime citations

  13. Subsurface Oceans on Europa and Callisto: Constraints from Galileo Magnetometer Observations

    Zimmer, Christophe, 2000, Icar

    343 lifetime citations

  14. A search for life on Earth from the Galileo spacecraft

    Sagan, Carl, 1993, Natur

    334 lifetime citations

  15. Sulfuric acid on Europa and the radiolytic sulfur cycle.

    Carlson, R. W., 1999, Sci

    326 lifetime citations

  16. Jovian atmospheric dynamics: an update after Galileo and Cassini

    Vasavada, Ashwin R., 2005, RPPh

    302 lifetime citations

  17. Tectonic Processes on Europa: Tidal Stresses, Mechanical Response, and Visible Features

    Greenberg, Richard, 1998, Icar

    299 lifetime citations

  18. Updated Galileo probe mass spectrometer measurements of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur on Jupiter

    Wong, Michael H., 2004, Icar

    297 lifetime citations

  19. Hydrated salt minerals on Europa's surface from the Galileo near-infrared mapping spectrometer (NIMS) investigation

    McCord, Thomas B., 1999, JGR

    294 lifetime citations

  20. The composition of the Jovian atmosphere as determined by the Galileo probe mass spectrometer

    Niemann, H. B., 1998, JGR

    293 lifetime citations

How we found these papers

We searched NASA’s Science Explorer (SciX) for peer-reviewed articles naming Galileo in the title, abstract or keywords; standard filters drop articles that are not peer-reviewed and magazine pieces.

((((=abs:Galileo AND abs:(Jupiter OR Jovian OR Io OR Europa OR Ganymede OR Callisto OR Amalthea OR Thebe OR Gaspra OR Dactyl OR "Shoemaker-Levy" OR =abs:("Galilean satellites" OR "Galilean satellite" OR "Galilean moons" OR "Galilean moon")) NOT =abs:("Telescopio Nazionale Galileo" OR "Telescopio Nazinale Galileo")) OR (=abs:Galileo AND collection:astronomy AND (abs:(spacecraft OR flyby OR asteroid OR magnetometer) OR =abs:("entry probe" OR orbiter)) NOT (=abs:("navigation satellite" OR "satellite navigation" OR "positioning system" OR "Galileo Project" OR "Galileo FOC" OR "Galileo IOV" OR "Galileo constellation" OR "Galileo for Science" OR "Telescopio Nazionale Galileo" OR "Telescopio Nazinale Galileo") OR abs:(GLONASS OR BeiDou))) OR =abs:"Galileo probe" OR (collection:astronomy AND (=abs:("Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer" OR "Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer" OR "Photopolarimeter-Radiometer" OR "Solid State Imaging" OR "Energetic Particles Detector" OR "Heavy Ion Counter" OR "Dust Detector System" OR "Probe Mass Spectrometer" OR "Net Flux Radiometer") OR abs:(NIMS OR SSI OR PPR OR EPD)) AND abs:(Jupiter OR Jovian OR Io OR Europa OR Ganymede OR Callisto OR Amalthea OR Gaspra OR Ida OR Dactyl))) NOT =abs:(Galilei OR "Sidereus Nuncius" OR "Galileo Avionica"))) AND property:refereed AND doctype:article AND pubdate:[1996-01 TO 2040-01] AND NOT bibstem:("A&R" OR "ACPD" OR "AIASJ" OR "AMTD" OR "AeAm" OR "AirSp" OR "AsNow" OR "AsUAI" OR "AvWST" OR "BGD" OR "C&E" OR "C&T" OR "CAPJ" OR "CliPD" OR "E&S" OR "ENews" OR "ESDD" OR "ESSDD" OR "ESuDD" OR "GID" OR "GMDD" OR "GeCAS" OR "HESSD" OR "IrAJ" OR "JCos" OR "JRASC" OR "LAstr" OR "MNSSA" OR "Met" OR "NHESD" OR "NPGD" OR "NewSc" OR "OcScD" OR "Orion" OR "PhT" OR "PhTea" OR "PhuZ" OR "PhyOJ" OR "PhyW" OR "PlR" OR "SOILD" OR "SciAm" OR "SpFl" OR "TCD" OR "ZemVs")

Open in SciX

Added after review (84)

  1. Galileo Infrared Imaging Spectroscopy Measurements at Venus Venus flyby observations of the night-side atmosphere from Galileo's infrared mapping spectrometer. Decision 🤖
  2. Images from Galileo of the Venus Cloud Deck Venus flyby images of the cloud deck from Galileo's camera. Decision 🤖
  3. Lightning and Plasma Wave Observations from the Galileo Flyby of Venus Venus flyby lightning and plasma wave observations from Galileo's plasma wave instrument. Decision 🤖
  4. Magnetic Field Studies of the Solar Wind Interaction with Venus from the Galileo Flyby Venus flyby magnetometer observations of the bow shock and foreshock. Decision 🤖
  5. Galileo Ultraviolet Spectrometer Experiment: Initial Venus and Interplanetary Cruise Results Venus flyby and cruise results from Galileo's ultraviolet spectrometers. Decision 🤖
  6. Energetic Particles at Venus: Galileo Results Venus flyby energetic particle measurements from Galileo's particle detector. Decision 🤖
  7. Plasma Observations at Venus with Galileo Venus flyby plasma measurements from Galileo's plasma instrument. Decision 🤖
  8. Lunar Impact Basins and Crustal Heterogeneity: New Western Limb and Far Side Data from Galileo Galileo images of the Moon's western limb and far side from the first Earth flyby. Decision 🤖
  9. Galileo and Ulysses dust measurements: Fz Venus to Jupiter Interplanetary dust impacts recorded by Galileo's dust detector during cruise. Decision 🤖
  10. The Galileo and Pioneer Venus Ultraviolet Spectrometer Experiments: Solar Lyman- alpha Latitude Variation at Solar Maximum from Interplanetary Lyman- alpha Observations Interplanetary Lyman-alpha measured by Galileo's ultraviolet spectrometer during cruise. Decision 🤖
  11. Imaging of Venus from Galileo: Early results and camera performance Early Venus flyby imaging results and camera performance from Galileo. Decision 🤖
  12. Galileo Encounter with 951 Gaspra: First Pictures of an Asteroid First Galileo images of asteroid 951 Gaspra from the 1991 flyby. Decision 🤖
  13. Galileo imaging observations of Lunar Maria and related deposits Galileo images of lunar maria from the first Earth-Moon flyby. Decision 🤖
  14. Galileo observations of post-imbrium lunar craters during the first Earth-Moon flyby Galileo images of lunar far-side craters from the first Earth-Moon flyby. Decision 🤖
  15. Targeting and Asteroid: The Galileo Spacecraft's Encounter With 951 Gaspra Optical navigation with Galileo images to target the 1991 Gaspra flyby. Decision 🤖
  16. Fine structure of Langmuir waves produced by a solar electron event Langmuir waves from a 1990 solar electron event seen by Galileo's plasma wave instrument. Decision 🤖
  17. The Galileo solar redshift experiment Solar gravitational redshift measured with Galileo's radio signal during cruise. Decision 🤖
  18. Solar wind latitude variations and multiple scattering from Galileo interplanetary Lyman-α observations Interplanetary Lyman-alpha map from Galileo's ultraviolet spectrometer during the first Earth flyby. Decision 🤖
  19. The Galileo earth encounter: Magnetometer and allied measurements Magnetometer observations of Earth's magnetotail during Galileo's first Earth flyby. Decision 🤖
  20. The Galileo encounter with Venus: results from the near-infrared mapping spectrometer Venus flyby results from Galileo's infrared mapping spectrometer. Decision 🤖
  21. Variations in Venus cloud particle properties: a new view of Venus's cloud morphology as observed by the Galileo near-infrared mapping spectrometer Venus cloud particle variations observed by Galileo's infrared mapping spectrometer. Decision 🤖
  22. Latitudinal distribution of carbon monoxide in the deep atmosphere of Venus Venus deep-atmosphere carbon monoxide mapped by Galileo's infrared mapping spectrometer. Decision 🤖
  23. Search for spatial variations of the H ₂O abundance in the lower atmosphere of Venus from NIMS-Galileo Venus lower-atmosphere water vapour from Galileo's infrared mapping spectrometer. Decision 🤖
  24. The upper clouds of Venus: determination of the scale height from NIMS-Galileo infrared data Venus upper-cloud scale height from Galileo's infrared mapping spectrometer. Decision 🤖
  25. Probing Venus's cloud structure with Galileo NIMS Venus cloud structure from Galileo infrared mapping spectrometer image cubes. Decision 🤖
  26. Earth global mosaic observations with NIMS-Galileo Earth atmosphere mosaics from Galileo's infrared mapping spectrometer during the first Earth flyby. Decision 🤖
  27. Magnetic Field Signatures Near Galileo's Closest Approach to Gaspra Magnetic field signatures near asteroid Gaspra from Galileo's magnetometer. Decision 🤖
  28. Galileo observations of the motions of ion and electron plasmas in the magnetotail Magnetotail plasma flows measured by Galileo's plasma instrument during the first Earth flyby. Decision 🤖
  29. Five populations of interplanetary meteoroids Interplanetary meteoroid model fitted to Galileo dust detector fluxes from cruise. Decision 🤖
  30. Crustal diversity of the Moon: Compositional analyses of Galileo solid state imaging data Lunar crustal composition from Galileo camera images taken during the first Earth flyby. Decision 🤖
  31. Lunar impact basins: New data for the western limb and far side (Orientale and South Pole-Aitken basins) from the first Galileo flyby Galileo images of the Orientale and South Pole-Aitken basins from the first Earth flyby. Decision 🤖
  32. A search for life on Earth from the Galileo spacecraft Galileo's Earth flyby observations used as a test of detecting life from space. Decision 🤖
  33. Structured plasma sheet thinning observed by Galileo and 1984-129 Plasma sheet thinning seen in Galileo energetic particle data during the first Earth flyby. Decision 🤖
  34. The structure and dynamics of the plasma sheet during the Galileo Earth-1 flyby. Plasma sheet structure from Galileo particle measurements during the first Earth flyby. Decision 🤖
  35. Galileo's Encounter with 951 Gaspra: Overview Overview of findings from Galileo's 1991 flyby of asteroid Gaspra. Decision 🤖
  36. The Direction of the North Pole and the Control Network of Asteroid 951 Gaspra Gaspra's pole direction and control network from Galileo flyby images. Decision 🤖
  37. The Shape of Gaspra Shape model of asteroid Gaspra from Galileo flyby images. Decision 🤖
  38. Galileo Photometry of Asteroid 951 Gaspra Photometry of asteroid Gaspra from Galileo flyby images. Decision 🤖
  39. The Geology of Gaspra Geology of asteroid Gaspra from Galileo flyby images. Decision 🤖
  40. Discovery of Grooves on Gaspra Discovery of grooves on asteroid Gaspra in Galileo flyby images. Decision 🤖
  41. Collisional History of Gaspra Collision modelling of the craters seen on Gaspra in Galileo flyby images. Decision 🤖
  42. Fine structure of Langmuir waves observed upstream of the bow shock at Venus Langmuir waves in the Venus foreshock from Galileo's plasma wave instrument. Decision 🤖
  43. A Magnetohydrodynamic Model of Solar Wind Interaction with Asteroid Gaspra Model of Galileo's magnetometer signatures near asteroid Gaspra. Decision 🤖
  44. Galileo infrared imaging spectrometry measurements at the Moon Lunar observations from Galileo's infrared mapping spectrometer during the first Earth flyby. Decision 🤖
  45. A variable cross-section model of the bow shock of Venus Venus bow shock model built from Galileo flyby crossings. Decision 🤖
  46. Galileo Multispectral Imaging of the North Polar and Eastern Limb Regions of the Moon Galileo images of the Moon's north polar region from the second Earth flyby. Decision 🤖
  47. High Resolution Cloud Feature Tracking on Venus by Galileo Venus cloud winds tracked in Galileo flyby images. Decision 🤖
  48. Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Satellite Galileo imaging results for asteroid Ida and its satellite from the 1993 flyby. Decision 🤖
  49. Observations of nonadiabatic acceleration of ions in Earth's magnetotail Magnetotail ion acceleration seen by Galileo's plasma instrument during the first Earth flyby. Decision 🤖
  50. Observations of interplanetary Lyman-α with the Galileo Ultraviolet Spectrometer: multiple scattering effects at solar maximum. Interplanetary Lyman-alpha observations from Galileo's ultraviolet spectrometer. Decision 🤖

Removed after review (35)

  1. Dynamics and astrometry of natural and artificial celestial bodies. Selected papers. 165th Colloquium of the International Astronomical Union, Poznań (Poland), 1 - 5 Jul 1996. Conference proceedings volume record; not a research paper. Decision 🤖
  2. Microparticles in the geostationary orbit (GORID experiment) Describes a dust detector on another satellite; mentions Galileo only as design heritage. Decision 🤖
  3. On a Recent Preliminary Study for the Measurement of the Lense-Thirring Effect with the Galileo Satellites Gravity test using Europe's Galileo navigation satellites; not the Galileo Jupiter mission. Decision 🤖
  4. Partial Ambiguity Resolution for Ground and Space-Based Applications in a GPS+Galileo scenario: A simulation study Navigation study of Europe's Galileo satellite system; not the Galileo Jupiter mission. Decision 🤖
  5. Prospects for Measuring Planetary Spin and Frame-Dragging in Spacecraft Timing Signals Relativity study using Europe's Galileo navigation satellites; not the Galileo Jupiter mission. Decision 🤖
  6. On the predictability and robustness of Galileo disposal orbits Disposal orbits for Europe's Galileo navigation satellites; not the Galileo Jupiter mission. Decision 🤖
  7. Eclipses: A Brief History of Celestial Mechanics, Astrometry and Astrophysics History of eclipse science citing Galileo Galilei; not the Galileo mission. Decision 🤖
  8. Magnetosphere Imaging Instrument (MIMI) on the Cassini Mission to Saturn/Titan Describes an instrument on Cassini; another mission's instrument paper. Decision 👨
  9. Touring the Saturnian System Describes Cassini's Saturn tour design; mentions Galileo only as design heritage. Decision 🤖
  10. Laboratory calibration of the cassini cosmic dust analyser (CDA) using new, low density projectiles Laboratory calibration of Cassini's dust analyser; mentions Galileo only as design heritage. Decision 🤖
  11. Development of a Directionality Detector for RADEM, the Radiation Hard Electron Monitor Aboard the JUICE Mission Describes a radiation detector for ESA's JUICE mission; mentions Galileo only for context. Decision 🤖
  12. A magnetotelluric instrument for probing the interiors of Europa and other worlds Describes a proposed Europa lander instrument; mentions Galileo only for context. Decision 🤖
  13. The Champollion cometary molecular analysis experiment Describes an instrument for the Champollion comet lander; mentions Galileo only as design heritage. Decision 🤖
  14. LAPLACE: A mission to Europa and the Jupiter System for ESA's Cosmic Vision Programme Concept overview of the proposed LAPLACE Europa mission; another mission's overview. Decision 👨
  15. Return to Europa: Overview of the Jupiter Europa orbiter mission Overview of the proposed Jupiter Europa Orbiter; another mission's overview. Decision 👨
  16. The Hera Saturn entry probe mission Concept overview of the proposed Hera Saturn probe; another mission's overview. Decision 👨
  17. Lawson's Shoehorn, or Should the Philosophy of Science Be Rated `X'? Critique of an account of Galileo Galilei's discovery of Jupiter's moons; not the Galileo mission. Decision 🤖
  18. Allchin's Shoehorn, or Why Science is Hypothetico-Deductive Reply on Galileo Galilei's discovery of Jupiter's moons and scientific reasoning; not the Galileo mission. Decision 🤖
  19. Basic inferences of scientific reasoning, argumentation, and discovery Science-education paper using Galileo Galilei's discovery of Jupiter's moons as a case history; not the Galileo mission. Decision 🤖
  20. How Galileo Constructed the Moons of Jupiter History of how Galileo Galilei worked out the moons of Jupiter; not the Galileo mission. Decision 🤖
  21. Systematic errors in Galileo's astronomical observations and alleged anomalies in the position of Neptune Analysis of errors in Galileo Galilei's 1612-13 observations of Neptune; not the Galileo mission. Decision 🤖
  22. Galileo's Planet: Observing Jupiter Before Photography (Th. Hockey) Book review of a history of observing Jupiter before photography; not the Galileo mission. Decision 🤖
  23. The four hundred years of planetary science since Galileo and Kepler Essay on four centuries of planetary science since Galileo Galilei and Kepler; not the Galileo mission. Decision 🤖
  24. The 26th International Physics Olympiad: On top down under! Report on the 1995 International Physics Olympiad; not the Galileo mission. Decision 🤖
  25. The Use of the Physics Teaching Laboratory (ptl) to Determine a Person's Reaction Time Physics-teaching experiment framed by Galileo Galilei's experimental method; not the Galileo mission. Decision 🤖
  26. Composition of inner main-belt planetesimals Asteroid spectroscopy with the Telescopio Nazionale Galileo; not the Galileo mission. Decision 🤖
  27. The Jovian system after Galileo. The Saturnian system before Cassini-Huygens. Proceedings. Nantes Symposium Part II, Nantes (France), 11 - 15 May 1998. Conference proceedings volume record; not a research paper. Decision 🤖
  28. Planetary atmospheres and ionospheres and reference atmospheres. Proceedings. C3.1 Symposium of COSPAR Scientific Commission C which was held during the Thirty-first COSPAR Scientific Assembly, Birmingham (UK), 14 - 21 Jul 1996. Conference proceedings volume record; not a research paper. Decision 🤖
  29. Galileo Hits a Strange Spot on Jupiter Science staff news article reporting mission results; a news item, not research. Decision 🤖
  30. Galileo Suggests Deep Roots To Jupiter's Fierce Winds Science staff news article reporting mission results; a news item, not research. Decision 🤖
  31. Galileo Finds Mysterious Magnetic Field at Ganymede Science staff news article reporting mission results; a news item, not research. Decision 🤖
  32. Galileo Gazes at Jupiter and Its Moons Science staff news article reporting mission results; a news item, not research. Decision 🤖
  33. Galileo Turns Geology Upside Down on Jupiter's Icy Moons Science staff news article reporting mission results; a news item, not research. Decision 🤖
  34. A geyser spurts from one of Jupiter's icy moons Nature research highlight summarizing another paper; a news item, not research. Decision 🤖
  35. Galileo's send-off Short Nature news item; a news item, not research. Decision 👨